Applications of Group Technology

Applications of Group Technology 1.0 Introduction Nowadays, the global economic of the world is getting increase and improves. All of the countries, nations and citizens are developing in a fast growing trend. Now the manufacturing processes also have to improve to such a way that produce and manufacture a good quality product with lower costs. Therefore a term group technology has been introduced. Group technology actually refers to a kind of technique which classifies the manufacturing part (sometimes named as family part) according to the size, shape, process or length. Some companies may group in according to other criterion such as the product’s function as long as it makes the company’s works easier. Actually, this group technology really can help to reduce the production costs. This is because grouping the part together (group of the part can be known as family part) can help to save the transportation costs, time of production and all this consequently increase the productivity, therefore, group technology defi nitely will be very useful to many of us. Actually people start using group technology since the 1920s. People start using group technology in manufacturing process during that moment. We are also able to see the example of group technology in our daily life. For example, when we go to the library in our school, all the book will be classify according to the faculty and the title of the books. This method is not only makes the works of the library staff easier but also enables the students or lecturer to find the books that they need easily. During the past decades, people normally used group technology to reduce the cost of production in manufacturing process. However, now the situation has changed, group technology has now become an important strategy for most of the manufacturing processes. It is an important aspect to improve the productivity and cause the company to develop in a better way. 2.0 Method to develop family part In order to use the concept of group technology, the companies have to think of the way to classify the group. The first step will be classifying the part of the products (family parts) according to two different attributes which will be based on the geometric characteristics and production process characteristics. In geometric characteristics, the products will be classified according to the size, shape and length. However, if the products are being classified according to the operation process, then the machine used for production, method of processing and tools used to hold the products will all being take into consideration. This actually is a method to group the part based on their attributes. Therefore, the company should observe their own product and determine the best way to classify the products. For example, for those company that actually own a factory that produce screw or bolt nut, the best method of classification will be geometric classification since the products may varies in shape and size. However, if the company is actually a health care company, and they are producing body shampoo, toothpaste and mouthwash then the better way to classify the product will be the operation processing classification. This is because the products produced are actually all the same in term of size and shape, but they may be varying in flavor and smell. This is causing the operation process to be different from each other. Then, the next step will be determining the method to form part families. Normally, the company will use three different methods to form the part families. The methods include coding and classification, manual visual inspection and production flow analysis. Different product may have different method to form the part families. The company should find the best way to group them and obtain the best result. 2.1 Classification and coding Classification is a process to group all the related parts into a group and sometimes can be known as part families. Wherease, coding is means that the part families are being assigned with a symbol. People will be able to obtain the information of the particular product based on the code. Each character of the code also carries the information of the previous character. This is the most effective and accurate method to classify group technology among these three methods. Nowadays, there are almost more than 100 types of classification and coding are available in the world. Besides, the coding system may vary from one company to another company. Many company had hire some experts to improve the coding system but there is no any universal acceptance until now. Some of the people may think that coding is just a simple task and can be easily done. However, it is actually a very difficult complex problem. Many time and energy have to be spent in order to find the best coding system that suitable for the company. As stated above, there are about 100 kind of coding system available in the world. However, all of the classification and the coding systems are actually can be grouped into three different kind. That will be Hierarchical (monocode), Attribute (polycode) and Hybrid (mixed code). Hierarchical (monocode) Hierarchical (monocode) is actually a coding system which the each character being used will need to depend on the meaning and carry along the information of the previous character. This kind of system also will show a tree structure pattern. The benefit of using this coding system will be the coding system is seem to be more apparent and all the information will be able to obtained based on the code itself. Hierarchical (monocode) is very useful in many ways especially when the products are differing in shape, size or other geometric characteristics. Forming a good hierarchical system can be very difficult. However, there are some hints for those companies who wish to form hierarchical system. When forming the codes, the company should ask themselves some questions. The answers collected from the choices will enable them to form an effective coding system. The benefits of this kind of coding system will be enables us to obtain many information within a single few digits code. Furthermore, this kind system makes some part of the part can bring along some useful abstracting information to the company. However, the disadvantage will be it is quite impossible to produce a perfect hierarchical system. The other disadvantage will be the existence of sub group can lead to many different sub-sub group, this cause some position having blank code. The figure above is an example of hierarchical (monocode) system and we can see that there is some imperfection in this system due to there is some empty coding exists. There some researches being done in order to improve and increase the efficiency of this hierarchical system.     Ã‚   Attribute (Polycode) The attribute code system sometimes can be known as polycode and chain code system. This code is different with the monocode in term of their digits. In this polycode system, the digits within the code are all carrying different information. Each digit represents each different attribute of the part. The advantage of this attribute (polycode) system will be very easily understood. This is due to each character is independent from one another. The company can know the details exactly after they saw the code. Unlike hierarchical code, the character has to depend on the previous information. Therefore, only the users who are familiar with the process can read the exact details. But this kind of coding system also did show a very significant disadvantage. This will be the code formed will be very long and large. The figure below will be an example of attribute code system. From this table, we can clearly see that each character actually represent different attitude of the products. For example, if we obtain a product with a code of ‘32123’ that it will represent that this product actually has the characteristics of, boxlike in external shape, center hole in internal shape, do not have any number of hole, the type of hole will be cross and the gear teeth is actually an external spur. Digit Class of feature Possible value of digits 1 2 3 4 1 External shape Cylindrical without deviation Cylindrical with deviation Boxlike †¦ 2 Internal shape None Center hole Brind center hole †¦ 3 Number of holes 0 1-2 3-5 †¦ 4 Type of holes Axial Cross Axial cross †¦ 5 Gear teeth Worm Internal spur External spur †¦ †¦ .. †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ Hybrid (mixed code) The final category of coding system will be the hybrid (mixed code). This is a kind of code system which most of the company prefer. This system combines the advantage from the Hierarchical (monocode) and Attribute (polycode) system. People may define this is an advanced system code. The example of this code will be ‘A12131B120’. The first alphabet ‘A’ is actually represents the type of part such as gear or screw. The next 5 digit used to represent the attribute of the part. Then the ‘B’ in the code above represents another subgroup such as the material or design. The following digit will be explaining the attitude of the subgroup stated. This clearly shows that this system did rely on the precious digit but also have some digit are independent which are able to show the attribute by itself. Actually there are also some organizations and company use a special kind of hybrid (mixed code) system. They are known as DCLASS or MICLASS code and contain up to 8-12 digits in a particular code. However, there is only some specific organizations such as (The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research) are using this special kind of hybrid (mixed) code system. Manual visual inspection Manual visual inspection will be one of the methods used to classify part families. Actually, this method is not accurate enough compared to coding and production flow analysis. This method is actually classifying the products based on the physical appearance. Sometimes, there will be some companies or organizations are classifying the products only based on the photograph and arrange them based on their feature. Therefore, we can conclude that this is one of the most inaccurate methods of grouping part families. However, there are actually some organizations are suitable to use this kind of coding system for their group technology. There is one company in United State successfully save their company from being backrub by using this manual visual inspection to classify their group technology. Actually, all of the method will be effective as long as it is suitable for the production of the company. Production flow analysis The other method to determine the part families will be the production flow analysis. This kind of classification system will mainly focus on the production process. The products that need to be manufactured by the same working process will be classified as a part families and then being processed by using a single kind of machines. The machines that used to manufacture part families are known as cells. Cellular manufacturing is referring to the manufacturing process when the part families are being manufacture by cell machine. The advantage will be this production flow analysis system need less effort compared to coding and classification system. When classifying products by using this system, we need to form a matrix. This matrix actually did bring along some special meaning. This actually is a machine-component chart and it is also a M * N matrix where M = number of machines and N = number of parts. The 2 figures below show the production flow analysis. The grouping will be based on the operation process and find the optimum solution for it. For example, there is a duplicate D in production flow analysis. This is because machine D need to produce too many parts. If only single machine to be used, group 1 and group 2 have to be combined but they have too many dissimilar routings, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 A 1 1 B 1 1 1 C 1 1 1 1 1 1 D 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 E 1 1 F 1 1 1 1 G 1 1 1 1 1 H 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 K 1 1 Figure above is the component machine chart 2 11 1 10 16 18 12 6 3 4 7 8 9 14 15 19 5 13 17 H 1 1 1 1 D 1 1 1 1 1 (Group1) F 1 1 1 1 A 1 1 B 1 1 1 E 1 1 D (Group 2) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 G 1 1 1 1 1 J (Group 3) 1 1 K 1 1 Figure above is the production flow analysis 3.0 Flow Chart in forming group technology Group Technology Advantages and disadvantages of group technology Group technology will play an important role in the future production plants although now it still does not achieve the widespread application. Using group technology strategy is definitely beneficial to all of us. This strategy is not only beneficial to the company but also beneficial to the citizen or users. The advantages of group technology toward the manufacturing process will be the production process can be improved. For example, the part control can become tighter, the physical layout of the machine group can be improved and the ordering tied toward the production also can be improved when group technology is being used. The other advantage will be a more systematic design and redesign can be produced. This will consequently lead to reducing on the planning time of the process and the setup time. The other advantage toward the manufacturing process will be the purchasing cost of the material can be reduced due to the materials are purchase in a very large quantity. This can also improve the accuracy of cost estimation of a certain companies or organizations. All these will definitely bring to an improvement toward the company and causes company or organizations to develop faster. The improvement also can be clear seen on the product itself when group technology is being used. We can clearly see the quality of the products being improved. This is because the number of completely new design can be reduced and this causes the workers more familiar with the part. This leads to a production of better quality products. The advantage that brings to the customer or users is the cost of the product is reduced when group technology being introduced. This is because the transportation fee to tr

Organizational Behavior Concepts: Self-Analysis

Organizational Behavior Concepts: Self-Analysis Vineesh Nambiar   Organizational Behavior Concepts: Self-Analysis and Team Assessments with Recommendations and Analysis The makings of a successful organization can generally be traced back to its ability to define itself from day one; very few organizations succeed if top level management doesnt lay down the rule of the land as far as expected Organizational Behavior is concerned. What exactly is Organizational Behavior? It basically relates to the study of the structurally set-up social system in an enterprise. In laymens terms, Organizational Behavior is a deeper look at the relationship employees (as individuals as well as in groups) have with a firm. The purpose of this paper is to examine different aspects of Organizational Behavior at various levels while simultaneously identifying managerial skills sets and attitudes that are beneficial at aiding in the successful fulfillment of objectives as it pertains to employee management. Using the CROAPI model, this paper looks to delve deeper into the following: Human Process Individual in the Organization Group Dynamics Influencing Others Organizational Processes Primarily this paper looks to shed light on self and critical evaluation of the concept of the team; mainly concerning itself with the important and practical guidelines associated with the facets that traditionally fall under the larger umbrella of Organizational Behavior. Starting with team cohesion, the aforementioned facets are as follows:    Team Cohesion Aristotle once said that The whole is greater than the sum of its parts and there can be no quote in existence that better summarizes the underlying relevance of team cohesion. Cohesiveness among teammates in any organization is essential for the maximization of effectiveness and efficiency when it comes to a firm. The similarity among members, the size of a team, the interaction between members and the overall penchant that a team shows for actively and aggressively pursuing success are some of the factors looked into when it comes to team cohesion. Social Loafing The next section deals with the phenomenon known as social loafing. A term devised to reflect the inability of some members in an organization to contribute a relatively acceptable level of performance when it comes to group tasks, potential and existing social loafers must always be on the radar of managers. There are a myriad of ways in which this issue can be dealt with: emphasizing the importance attached to a task, highlighting the work contribution of an employee and reducing the size of a task group are some of these. Motivation A manager has to put up with numerous expectations that sound easy on paper but nigh impossible in practice; keeping an employee or a set of employees at a constant level of high motivation falls under this category. This section of the report examines different theories that are associated with employee motivation as a unique, separate concept. These theories include Maslows Theory of Motivation, the Equity Theory of Motivation and the Expectancy Theory of Motivation. Personality Using the Five-Factor Model, this report aims at outlining different personality traits and establishes relevant relationships between these and employee performance. The parameters used under this model are Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness to experience and Extraversion (CANOE for short). Gauging personalities is often an underrated aspect of managerial expertise and hence, this paper looks to expand on the topic in an analytical manner. Perception The perception can arise in an organization as the process of receiving information about, and making sense of, the world around us. This can lead to different problems within an organization or team. Creating Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and Minimization of Stereotyping, Attribution Errors, Halo Effect it can be managed in an organization. Values across Cultures Cultural values are very often overlooked when managerial decisions are undertaken. The prevalence of a one-size-fits-all mentality is generally found to be the culprit beyond this sort of dodgy decision making. Via the use of Hostfedes data on Germany and the United Arab Emirates, an analysis has been carried out in this report with emphasis on the differences between collectivism and individualism as well as power distance as it relates to potential managerial techniques that need to be employed. This paper ultimately aims at not just critical self-evaluation of the team but also the analytical formulation of recommendations that can aid in systematically and logically dealing with any plausible problems that can arise under the gamut of Organizational Behavior. Using conceptually-approved managerial measures of evaluation, the following pages seek to ask questions and deliver answers to many different aspects of Organizational Behavior. The paper will cover the following individual sections Self and Team analysis Team Cohesion Social Loafing Motivation Personality Perception Values Across Culture I have done a self-analysis and have posted a picture of myself in the analysis and also I have interviewed my team members Madison Rase, Duo Wang and Zui Tao on their educational qualifications, professional and career aspirations and the professional achievement that they are proud of. TEAM MEMBER QUALIFICATION AND OBJECTIVE SELF- Vineesh Nambiar I am an international student from India and hold a Bachelors in Computer Science Engineering from Anna University, India. I am currently Pursuing my MBA at SVSU and my interests are in Web Application Development and Cloud Computing. I have 2 years of experience in developing applications using Java and web Applications. My career objective is to pursue a dynamic and challenging career with an organization of repute, which will give value addition to the organization as well as opportunity to enhance professional skills while getting high level of satisfaction and recognition. Madison Rase Madison is currently pursuing a Bachelors degree in chemistry with an anticipated graduation date of May 2017 and simultaneously pursuing an MBA with an anticipated graduation date of May 2018. She is an experienced Lab Technician at the Dow Corning Corporation where she has created and evaluated formulations for customer standards and has also helped in correcting production issues. Her career objective is to have her own business working with the design and production of cars. Duo Wang Duo Wang is an international student from China who holds a Bachelors degree in animation design from Guilin University of Electronic Technology, China. She is currently pursuing her MBA at SVSU. She has an aspiration to work for an animation company. While she was doing her undergraduate degree, she was a member of the students association for three years and, also served as the head of the association for a year. This experience gave her an insight on how to work in a team and what teamwork is all about Zui Tao (Chris) Chris is an international student from China. He earned his Bachelors degree in General Business from SVSU. His aspiration is to have a successful management career in the U.S.A and more specifically in Human Resource Management. He has two years volunteering experience and used to run a department in the association. He is looking forward to reflecting on his personal values with and his abilities. Team cohesion (Appendix A- Figure 2).refers to the degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members. It is a characteristic of the team, and includes the extent to which its members are attracted to the team, are committed to the teams goals or tasks, and feel a collective sense of team pride. Thus, team cohesion is an emotional experience, not just a calculation of whether to stay or leave the team. It exists when team members make the team part of their social identity. Team development tends to improve cohesion because members strengthen their identity to the team during the development process. Following where the factors that lead to high cohesion of our group where these factors reflect an individuals social identity within the group and beliefs about how team membership will fulfill her or his personal needs. Member Similarity: This was very applicable to our team as all of us are pursuing an MBA degree in SVSU and has definitive objectives after completing the course. Team Size: This is also very relevant to our team as we are at the right number of team members. Member Interaction: we periodically communicate or interact with the team members using E-mails, Text, and group meetings. Team Success: This is the first project we are doing as a team and we expect to perform well and will be willing to work as the same team should we all be together in another course at SVSU. Social Loafing happens when a group member exerts less individual effort when doing an addictive task in groups than when working alone (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 224). This occurs when a large group is formed, the lower will be the impact of force on any of the one member in it. Thus, more the people who might be contributing for the group production, the less pressure each person faces and will result less responsible for behaving appropriately and social loafing occurs. Following are the ways by which social loafing can be overwhelmed. Emphasize the importance of the work: People are unlikely to go for free rides when they believe that the tasks that they are performing are vital to the organization. To help this I would explain to my team members the nature of contribution of work they need to do towards the team project. Making the team members identifiable: Social loafing occurs when people feels that they can get away by taking it easy, under conditions in which each individuals contribution cannot be determined. It can only be overcome when ones contribution to an additive task are identifiable. It is that potential loafers are unlikely to loaf if they have the fear of getting caught. Rewarding individuals for the contribution to their teams performance: The employee must be given with a bonus or some sort of recognition when they succeed in their task. In such situations, each member would benefit from the team success which encourages the individuals to contribute for their teams performance. In our team, we appreciate the good work done by each team member in an attempt to motivate each other. Reduced Group size: It will be very easy to track the performance of the individuals in a small group where as in large groups judging of the individuals cannot be done. The members of a team will be cautious about the responsibility when they are in a small group. Our group stated as a small team of 4 which was ideal to manage without issues. Motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 124). It is one of the several determinants of job performances but not equivalent. People are motivated with the work ethics as they seek interesting and challenging jobs. Managers are the key peoples to motivate the team to reach the organizational goals. Ways of motivating a team: MASLOWs Theory of Motivation: Maslows needs hierarch theory Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s, the model (Appendix A- Figure 3). condenses and integrates the long list of drives and needs that had been previously studied into a hierarchy of five basic categories (from lowest to highest): physiological (need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.), safety (need for security and stability), belongingness/love (need for interaction with and affection from others), esteem (need for self-esteem and social esteem/status), and self-actualization (need for self-fulfillment, realization of ones potential) (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 127). Maslow suggested that we are motivated simultaneously by several primary needs (drives), but the strongest source of motivation is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time. As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the primary motivator and remains so even if never satisfied. We adopted some of the techniques that come under the different categories of the theory to motivate the team members. Physiological Needs Provide input for employee salaries and bonuses. Safety Needs Ensure the correct tools for the job are available. Create an environment where individuals are comfortable challenging requests that are dangerous. Social Needs Schedule weekly project team meetings. (Adopted) Get the team together to celebrate project milestones. (Adopted) Esteem Needs Recognize team members for excellent contributions to the project. (Adopted) Ensure each team member understands how important they are to the project. (Adopted) Self-Actualization Needs Consider each team members tasks goals when assigning tasks. (Adopted) Empower team members so that they can develop and grow. (Adopted) EQUITY Theory of Motivation: Equity theory (Appendix A- Figure 4) claims that people desire to attain an equitable balance between the ratios of their outcomes and inputs and the corresponding ratios of comparison to other (Jerald Greenberg, 2011, p. 224). Inequitable states of overpayment inequity and underpayment inequity are undesirable, motivating people to try to attain equitable conditions. Responses to inequity may be either behavioral like raising or lowering ones performance or thinking differently about work contribution, a psychological way. To avoid negative reaction such as strikes, reduced work, resignation overpayment and underpayment inequity must be avoided. In our team, we made sure that the tasks were equally allocated or distributed so that no one team member is overwhelmed with their assigned tasks. Employee engagement: It is described as an emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with work (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p.124). In our team after assigning the tasks we made sure that members were in agreement with their assignments so that they have 100% involvement, committed and enjoyed working on their assignments/ tasks. EXPECTANCY Theory of Motivation: A motivation theory based on the ideas that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, P.133).Three components of expectancy theory are: Effort-to-Performance expectancy: It is ones belief that his or he effort towards the task will result in a particular level of performance. Performance-to-Outcome expectancy: This theory is based on the principle that a particular result will be obtained if one displays a specific behavior or performance level. Outcome valences: valence is the expected or desired satisfaction or dissatisfaction an individual feel towards the results. Personality can be defined as the outline of thoughts, emotions and behaviors that characterize a person along with the psychological process associated with those characteristics. Personality have five dimensions which comes under Five-Factor Model (FFM) and they are (CANOE) Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness to experience and Extraversion (Appendix A- Figure 1). Conscientiousness: It is the predisposition of an individual or a person to do what is right, especially to do ones duty well and thoroughly. Agreeableness: Nature of an individual to be compassionate towards others. Neuroticism: It is the tendency of an individual to experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt etc. easily. Openness to experience: The tendency of an individual to enjoy new ideas and experiences. Extraversion: It is the characteristics of an individual to seek recreation and to enjoy he company of other people. Following table was used to assess the personality of myself and my team members. Used a scaling factor of 1 through 5 (1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neutral, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree) to gauge the personality of each team member using Five-Factor Model. FFM Madison Rase Duo Wang Vineesh Nambiar Zui Tao (Chris) Conscientiousness 5 5 5 5 Agreeableness 5 5 5 5 Neuroticism 1 1 1 1 Openness to Experience 5 5 5 5 Extraversion 5 5 5 5 Except for neuroticism all members scored high on the other factors in Five Factor Model (FFM). Job performance can be measured in employee evaluation. This provides the evaluation regarding the employers quality in their work. In order to determine an employees skill set is appropriately matched to the employees job it is important to conduct or perform employee evaluations. The four reasons why assessments are important are: Employee Training and Development: Strength and weakness are the first step steps for evaluating the type of training the employee needs. An evaluation helps understand the type of development programs required to benefit employee and eventually the employer. Employee Performance Goal: Evaluation stipulates the performances standards against the job. Or in other words it is the expected level of performance of job duties of an employee. Performances can be evaluated on a periodic basis as determined by the leadership of the organization. Conflict Management Among Employees: Conflicts arise from the differences in personalities. A personality assessment will help evaluating the root cause for conflicts which needs to be corrected so that the team can perform well. Employee Reward and Recognition: Most organization compensation structure is based on performance measurement through employee evaluations. It gives the upper leadership of an organization to recognize employees hard work, dedication and commitment. Perception (Appendix A- Figure 5). can be defined as the process of receiving information about, and making sense of, the world around us (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 72). The process begins with the stimuli received through our senses of which some are retained and most screened out after bombarding with our senses. The retained information then gets organized and interpreted. So the process of only attending to some information while ignoring the other is called selective attention and is greatly influenced by the characteristic of the person or object being perceived. Additionally, the characteristics of the perceiver also influence selective attention. So, this can lead to different problems within an organization or team one of which is called confirmation bias. The process of readily accepting confirming information and screening out that are contrary to our values and assumptions is called Confirmation bias. Below are some of the perception related issues an organization or a manager should consider when dealing with team members. Minimization of Stereotyping: stereotyping is something that is existent in all organizations and teams. People engage in stereotyping because it is a natural and mostly nonconscious process. Stereotyping lays the foundation for discriminatory attitudes and behavior. It can be minimized by providing appropriate trainings to team members and by efforts from managers in educating them. Minimization of Attribution Errors: It is the tendency of an individual to explain someones behavior based on the internal factors such as personality or disposition and intern underestimate the influence of external factors have on another persons behavior. One of the major causes for the conflicts between the teams is when attribution error exists so, manager or upper leadership make efforts to cultivate good understanding within the team member thus, reducing conflicts. Creating Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: A self-fulfilling prophecies is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true as a result of the positive feedback between belief and behavior or in other words it is a belief that comes true because we are acting as if it is already true. For example, if one believes that his or her project is strong and feel confident about it the person will most likely write a strong confident letter. This faith in the project and oneself will also serve well when it comes to for example, marketing the project. So, promoting self-fulfilling prophesies will lead to team success. Minimizing Halo Effect: it is a tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in other area. In an organization halo effect occurs when a supervisor gives an employee a rating in all areas of performances based on a general impression of that person. Is also has an impact on employees sees themselves. They tend to develop their own insights about their performances and the companys overall performances based on the management feedback. Halo effect can be reduced by developing a training plan to build the capacity of the managers along with including information on how evaluations can be done more accurately. An Individualism can be defined as a value described to a degree in which the people with a culture emphasize personal uniqueness and independence. Where when it comes for a group with a harmony it becomes collectivisms. Power Distance is the value describing the degree by which people in a culture who accepts power in the society which is unequal. U.A.E from Asia and Germany from Europe where the countries where selected for evaluating Individualism/collectivism and Power distance. VALUE SAMPLE COUNTRY ANALYSIS Individualism/Collectivism High: Germany Low: United Arab Emirates In Germany, small families with a focus on the parent-children relationship rather than aunts and uncles are most common. There is a strong belief in the ideal of self-actualization. Loyalty is based on personal preferences for people as well as a sense of duty and responsibility. United Arab Emirates scored a low for individualism/collectivism. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is dominant, and supersedes most other societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to shame and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a family link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employees in-group, management is the management of groups. Power Distance High: United Arab Emirates Low: Germany In United Arab Emirates people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat Germany is highly decentralized and supported by a strong middle class. Co-determination rights are comparatively extensive and hence have to be taken into account by the management. A direct and participative communication and meeting style is common, control is disliked and leadership is challenged to show expertise and best accepted when its based on it. From Vince Lombardis quote Individual commitment to a group effortthat is what makes a team work, a company work, a society work, a civilization work. It was a great experience working with the team and we did not find much difficulty in completing the work together. We did follow the basic guidelines upon the team cohesion, personality, controlling social loafing and perception. We put conscious efforts to control any conflicts by establishing a good leadership in the team and also built a team culture among us. Adopting these strategies would eventually lead to a good team and will contribute to a successful organization. References McShane, S. L., Von Glinow, M. A. Y. (2015). Organizational behavior. New York: Irwin/McGraw-Hill Greenberg, Jerald. Behaviour in Organization. Tenth ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2011. Plant, L. (2012). Motivation and feedback influencing change in the goal-setting process (Order No. MR84417). Available from ProQuest Business Collection. (1115315275). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/1115315275?accountid=960 Lee, S. (1998). The relationship of personality type to self-perceived and faculty-perceived managerial effectiveness among college and university sport/physical education administrators in the republic of korea (Order No. 9820638). Available from ProQuest Business Collection. (304482798). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/304482798?accountid=960 Townsend, W. (2013). INNOVATION AND THE PERCEPTION OF RISK IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR. International Journal of Organizational Innovation (Online), 5(3), 21-34. Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/1419395542?accountid=960 Alonso, A. (2003). The attribution of motives to organizational citizenship behaviors: The influence of personality, gender and ethnicity (Order No. 3085811). Available from Psychology Database. (305233252). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/305233252?accountid=960 Yu, C. (2005). An I -P -O model of team goal, leader goal orientation, team cohesiveness, and team effectiveness (Order No. 3202366). Available from ProQuest Business Collection. (305360282). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/305360282?accountid=960 Suleiman, J., Watson, R. T. (2008). Social loafing in technology-supported teams. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 17(4), 291-309. Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/622218484?accountid=960 Mortenson, S. T. (2002). Sex, communication values, and cultural values: Individualism-collectivism as a mediator of sex differences in communication values in two cultures. Communication Reports, 15(1), 57-70. Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/203808136?accountid=960 APPENDIX A: DIAGRAMS Figure 1. CANOE Figure 2. TEAM COHESION Figure 3. MASLOW THEORY OF MOTIVATION Figure 4. EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION Figure 5. PRECEPTION Types and Forms of Racism: Exploration of the US Types and Forms of Racism: Exploration of the US Racism has been around for a long it and it is quite difficult to point out whether it is going to end today or in the near future. Many people would think of racism in terms of Whites oppressing the Blacks but there are various forms of racial discrimination that we will analyze shortly. Racial discrimination overall is not a good thing. Those who practice it should put themselves on the shoes of those being oppressed and try to visualize how good or bad it is. From there we would have an equal platform of reasoning together. In the United States, there are different groups of people that are discriminated against. This includes; the Native Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans, Arabs and Muslims and Iranians. Introduction Racism in simple terms can be described as the hatred one human being hast towards another human being (Human Rights Watch May, 2008). This hatred is based on the differences in skin color, language, place of origin and cultural customs. One group of individuals believes that their group is better than the other. An example of the worst racism is that of the Whites towards the Africans. Some, even up to today believe that Africans are incomplete creatures. This is what led to the early slave trade and the present enslavement. Racism also exists among the Whites themselves depending on whether one is an Easterner or a westerner. This is influenced by the superpower capability that a country possesses. Racism has led to slavery, war, splitting of nations and formation of new ones and drafting of legal codes. Types of Racism There exist different types of racism as described by Human Rights Watch (May, 2008); the first type is the historical racism. This comes about due to a persons lineage and decent. People with common historical origins, but not necessarily biological characteristics, fall under this category. It is used to categorize nation states in Europe. For example the Nazi eagle, Aryan cross; was believed to be superior to other nations. The second type of racism is the institutional based racism. This is put in place to protect the interests of a certain group and maintain the status quo of inequality among the society members. This can best be expressed by the apartheid rule that was in place in South Africa. The third type of racism is the scientific type of racism. This classifies people to have superior characteristics than the other for example intelligence due to brain size, a fore head which is sloping. It is believed there is a hierarchy of races and this is what was used a justificati on to colonize others. The last type of racism is new racism. This is based on new expressions. This encompasses immigrants, integration and cultural values. Forms of Racism According to Human Rights Watch (May, 2008), racism can be classified into two categories: Minority racism and majority racism. Minority racism is practiced by affluent minority groups that look at themselves as special and in some circumstances; you find that they have support from some external powers. This kind of racism tends to be closely linked with imperialism. It is usually y called minority racism from above. Western imperialism falls under this category as well as the former colonials that practiced apartheid in South Africa. The Whites were unable to exterminate the local Africans as they did with the natives of North America. The Chinese nationalism also falls under this group. The Chinese Diaspora views themselves as a superior ethnic group especially in Southeast Asia. Jews, in Israel, view themselves as a minority group surrounded and oppressed by the Arabs. However, the Jews are many in number in Israel. This emanates from the Arabs desire to oppress the oppressor. Th is view of the Jews is what is known as minority racism from below. Majority racism from above is a populist in nature usually based on racial reversal for example the Hutu and Tutsi genocide in Rwanda or Sinhala, who discriminated the Tamils (Human Rights Watch May, 2008). There is usually a divide and rule force behind this kind of discrimination. In the United States, this can be illustrated by the hatred the natives had against the immigrants. Racism from below is the common form of racism experienced in the West. This is illustrated by discrimination against the African Americans or discrimination against the Native Americans. African American is the most hated group due to the poverty levels they exhibit and the crime rate levels they are involved in. Racism can be more dangerous and hurtful if its forces are being propagated by a well social-economic class. Anti-racism in many cases is involved in trying to distribute power equal in terms of economy, employment opportunities, access to social amenities and education thus eliminating ethnic ten sions that may arise Overview of Racism in the United States Racism in the United States dates back as far as to the colonial era (Anthony 34). Inequality in human rights has been witnessed by the Native Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans and Asian Americans. Racial discrimination dates as far back as the 17th century up to the 1960s. Only the White Americans enjoyed access to literacy, the right to acquire and own land, citizenship, and the right to vote, immigration and a right to a fair trial in court proceedings. Other European groups like the Jews and the Irish have experienced major social exclusion. Even though racism was officially banned in the mid 20th century, it continues to be experienced in areas of employment, housing, education, lending and government institution. Many people have not accepted the ban and thus racism continues to be experienced in terms of segregation, slavery, reservations, residential schools, internment groupings and Indian wars. Discrimination is also evidenced in terms of religion. Muslims are discriminated against due the activities of extremists and are thus, widely viewed as terrorists (Alvin Poussaint, par 3). Recent Day Racism Situation According to a United Nations Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination report (March 2008) reported by Anthony (38), the United States has or it is failing to meet international standards on racial equality. The equality disparities are being witnessed education, housing, criminal justice and healthcare. In March 2006, the same committee criticized the United States for not upholding the right of land ownership policy by the Native American. The committee wanted the United States to enforce the United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous communities. The United States was also to provide a detailed report on what it had done to promote the culture of indigenous Hawaiian, Alaska and Indian Americans (Alvin Poussaint, par 3). The committee also observed that there was indiscriminate environmental racism and environmental degradation of spiritual areas and also areas that held certain cultural significances. The environmental degradation in question includes mining o n sacred lands. Anthony (37) reports that racial discrimination was also observed in the judicial system. This was so especially with the death penalty and life imprisonment sentence. It was observed that minors were sentenced to either of the two harsh sentences as compared to their other counterparts who received a more lenient sentence having been convicted of the same crime. The committee was outraged by the governments comments that black kids get life without parole because of the many crimes they had committed. The committee was also not happy in the way the United States continued to hold non-U.S. suspects of terrorism in the Guantanamo Bay prison. The wanted the United states to expose the prisoners to a judiciary review. To them, this was just another form of racial discrimination. Ajamu Baraka of the Human rights network observes Racial discrimination has been normalized and accepted as a way of American life (Anti-Defamation League, par 4). The committee advised the United States to set up a Human Rights body that will keep track and oversee racial discrimination or disparities. The committee went ahead to warn the United States that it is not above the law. Racism in the Criminal Justice System According to Anti-Defamation League (par 4), the United States criminal justice system has been mentioned negatively in various print and news media. It is said to be racial based. It is said that African Americans are usually targeted and severely punished as compared to their white counterparts. The following few incidents go on to show the extent to which the criminal justice system is said to be rotten. According to a Human Rights Watch (May, 2008), the Whites and Africans who are involved in drug trafficking are fairly the same. The United States African American population is made up of only 13% and those using drugs are made up of 14%. However, when it comes to arrests made on those dealing with drugs, the majority are African Americans. It beats the logic how come it is only the African Americans who are arrested the most. It is also reported that stops that are made by police involves mainly Blacks and the Latinos (Anthony 62). It is said that 80% of the stops made by NYPD in New York involved either Blacks or Latinos. For these stops, 85 % were frisked while only 8% of the white stops made were frisked. The same happenings are reported to be the same elsewhere in the country. In California, for example, it was found that Blacks were stopped times more compared to the Whites. It has also been revealed that once arrests are made, the Blacks are more likely to remain in jail awaiting trial as compared to the white counterparts. In a 1995 review report on the rate of trial of felonies carried out by the New York State Division of Criminal Justice, it was found out that 33% more Blacks would be detained awaiting trial as compared to their White counterparts 80 % of people convicted of a crime seek a public defender. The higher numbers of people seeking a public defender are Blacks. The public defenders ar e an overworked lot who are underpaid and effectively, it means the poor Blacks who cannot afford the services of a private attorney will contend with the services of a tired and disgruntled public defender. In the end, the Blacks stand a big chance to lose their cases (Anti-Defamation League, par 3). As reported by Anti-Defamation League (par 3), the Equal Justice Initiative released a report on June 2010, arguing that African American are underrepresented or excluded from the criminal jury services. It is reported that in Houston County, Ala, 8 of the 10 African American juries have been barred from participating on death penalty cases. It is said only few cases end up in the trial chambers. The main reason being, the African Americans plead guilty to a crime they did not commit so as to avoid the flawed court process that can sentence them for a long period for a crime they did not commit. It is also reported that Blacks found guilty are likely to receive a sentence that is 10% longer than their white counter parts for a similar crime. The report still goes on to say that 20% more Blacks are likely to be sentenced to prison on drug offences as compared to the Whites while 21% more will receive the compulsory minimum sentence. According to Anthony (2009), in July, 2009, the sentencing Project reported that more people who are not Whites were receiving the long term serving sentences. It reported that 2/3 of the people servicing life imprisonment were either the Blacks or the Latinos. According to the Congressional Testimony for The Sentencing Project report mentioned by Anthony (34), 56% of those in prison convicted of drug offences are the Blacks. This is a big contrast compared their population of 13% and drug users of 14%. The United States Bureau of Justice Statistics shows that a male by born it the year 2001 is likely to go to jail five times and three times for Latinos more than a white boy born in the same year. There are about 16% juvenile Black American youth in the whole population and about 28 % juvenile arrests are made. 37% of the juveniles are imprisoned in juvenile jails and about 56% are sent to adult prisons (Anti-Defamation League, par 5). The United States has the highest percentage of population in prison than any other country in the world (Anti-Defamation League, par 5). However, the majority of the prisoners are Black males. This is according to the ABC News report. It is reported that even after the prison stint, racial discrimination continues to be felt outside prison. Whites who have criminal records are treated better than Blacks who do not have a criminal record. Whites who are released from prison have a higher percentage likelihood of being called back compared to Blacks also who have a criminal record. Impacts of Racism Racism has some negative psychological effect. Delivering a key address, Allavian Poussaint (1993) said; to be black in America is to be a suspect (par 2). A black has to prove that he/she has no ill motive. Competence also has to be proved beyond reasonable doubt. Thus a black will not walk comfortably in the streets with long over his/her shoulder due to security reasons. Racism can impact negatively on one psycho-politically. Black in general has been considered to be evil. Lucifer is depicted to be black. Thus African Americans are considered to be of a dark ancestry. This in other words is promoting white purity and stigmatizing the black race. Overall, the implication is that the Blacks should be segregated, oppressed and enslaved. Racism has led to genocide. Allavian Poussaint (1993) also says that according to the white Americans, the only good Indian is a dead Indian (par 6). This shows how life has been devalued. During the civil rights struggle, several people were killed. Anthony (2009) reiterates that the law is not applied in equal terms. This is especially with the death penalty. It is said that minorities who are sentenced to death are highly likely to be executed as compared with their white counter parts. According to the anti-death penalty Organization Amnesty International, murderers of white people are 6 times likely to be executed as compared to the killers of the black people. It goes to show that the judicial system values White live than that of Blacks and other minority groups. Global Research (2008) has indicated that racism has led to formation of attack gangs. In Southern California for instance, there are African American and Mexican American gangs. The gangs have special mafias who attack each other i.e. the Mexican kills the Blacks and the Blacks kill the Mexicans on sight. This has also been witnessed in the prisons where riots have been reported due to one group attacking the other. The Black Americans have not had a cordial relationship with the black immigrants. This is based on the cultural and social differences that exist between them. Anthony (37) argues that there is disparity in wealth creation. The tax policies have restricted people on how to acquire wealth. The Social Security Acts excludes some sectors of the economy such as agriculture where most minority groups work and rewards other groups like the army. This has a disparity of wealth of acquisition by a factor of 1 to 10. Racism has affected negatively the health of the minorities. It is observed that the number of minorities that who visited psychiatrists was much higher as compared to Whites (Anti-Defamation League, par 3). Stress levels have also been discovered to be higher in the minorities groups. Frequent physical diseases and common colds have also been discovered to affect the minority females as compared to the white women. Inadequate health care is blamed for the many deaths observed in the black race than the white race. The Blacks lack or have inadequate medical insurance cover, reluctance to seek medical attention and poor medical service. It is said that many lives would be saved if the minority groups received proper medical attention as that of their white counter parts. The minority are no privileged to receive adequate health care if the treatment in question involves the very most recent technology. Affirmative Action Though he has been critical in highlighting the plights of the minority groups in America, Anthony (2009) adds that affirmative action has been put into place to address the historical injustice imposed on groups that were discriminated. This includes access to education, employment, health facilities. Most universities and employers are using affirmative action while admitting new students or employees respectively. Historically disadvantaged groups are given priority or a quota system is used. Opponents of affirmative action have displayed openly their discontent and would like people to be taken on merit and not on the basis of other methods. Fighting Racism at Individual Levels There exists ways that can help to fight this racism vice. A few of the ways as held by Global Research (2008) as such that could be to the sense that whenever one makes a racist joke, we are not supposed to laugh at it. Laughing encourages one to go on. Instead, we should make the person understand that the joke was not funny or we do not appreciate such kind of jokes. The worst thing is to keep silent. Instead we should speak over minds out but cautiously and politely. We should strive to learn about others and understand their cultures; the differences in our culture call for appreciation and celebration. We can learn from them and appreciate why some things are the way they are. There is no culture which is considered superior than the other. It is helps in enriching our own cultures. We should always use the correct language. It is not prudent to mention races in a conversation. Some people get offended when you use a language that it, there is an implication of racial discrimination. We should never use words haphazardly when we are not sure where one ails from. As much as possible, we should try to be role models. We should speak against but not criticize comments that are racist in nature. Educate others the negative effects of racism and narrate your own experiences to them if any. The other best thing though it can be uncomfortable is to venture into areas where one is not of the other kind. However, one should take his/her safety issues into consideration. If one learns in a White institution, one should try to venture into a Black institution or if she/he is a Christian, she/he should find time to visit a Muslim mosque. The experience will certainly be enlightening than one might expect (Global Research, par 7). If presented with projects, one should try t o do them with people who are not from their own kind. Playing at an equal level enhances the confidence of the minority and helps to cancel the bitter discrimination injustice feelings they might be harboring in their hearts. According to Anthony (2009), If one is a parent, he/she should at an early age try to mingle his/her children with the children from the other groups. One should strive to discuss TV programs and movies that could be of stereotype. This will help children to understand other people and their culture. This will help in suppressing racial discrimination traits from creeping in. As much as possible one should help and support organization that voices their ideas against racial discrimination. This will help in fighting against it and by joining these groupings; you will have a more powerful voice at the local level. People will be ready to listen to you. As they say, united we stand and apart we fall. Thus being in an organization with a common goal, great strides of achievements will be made. Conclusion It is safe to say that racism has drastically reduced with the continued legislation and having an informed populace. Religion also has played a major role in eradicating it as people believe that racism is a sin and practicing or helping in its propagation is sinning against God. Affirmative action programs have majorly benefitted the minority even though the white feel that they should be done away with total. They feel that they are the ones at the losing end. As always people try to resist change to the old ways they are used. Racial spats these days are not common. If one does an act implying racism, it is usually unconscious, unintentional and not malicious. With the reduction of racism, some things are yet to be achieved like equal employment opportunities and wages. The economic status of the minority still is wanting. This could be one of the reasons why hate crimes are still in the increase. The best way to reach a conclusive end to race disparities is to find a way of elim inating institutionalized discrimination. This kind of discrimination maintains the status quo of the society and thus the groups that have historically been disadvantaged continue to be on the losing end. As Martin Luther King Junior said that we as a nation need to undergo a radical revolution of values. Thus the United States criminal justice system must check the main cause of the problem. It should not rely on what it calls reforms; reforms of having nice beds in good position.

Sapphos A Prayer To Aphrodite and Seizure Essay -- Prayer To Aphrodit

Sappho's A Prayer To Aphrodite and Seizure Sappho wrote poems about lust, longing, suffering, and their connections to love. Her poetry is vivid, to the point where the reader or listener can feel the sentiments rising from the core of his or her own being. The poetry truly depicts a realistic picture of the bonds of love. Through the subtle differences of the poems, "A Prayer To Aphrodite," and "Seizure," Sappho conveys the intensity of the longing and suffering of love. In "A Prayer To Aphrodite," Sappho is offering a prayer, of sorts, to the goddess of love. She doesn't directly describe the pains her love causes her: she suggests them, and allows Aphrodite to elaborate. She mentions the grief one feels at the denial of love, but that is all. She implies that she is living in darkness, without this love she so desires. Aphrodite comes to her -- taking pains to do so -- in all her splendor. She knows immediately what Sappho wishes of her. She has been there for the same purpose before...

The Authenticity of Hecate in Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth essays

The Authenticity of Hecate in Macbeth      Ã‚  Ã‚   The authenticity issue of Macbeth's Hecate endures. Recent critics still argue about whether the scenes are Shakespearean, why they are or are not, and what the implications are one way or the other. Some critics cling to the authenticity of the Folio while others wave their copies of Middleton's "The Witch" in protest. The modern director and reader then will find no clear direction to read or not to read from textual scholarship. Instead, would-be travellers to the world of Macbeth had better consider their options and ask specifically: what does Hecate add with her appearance and how do these additions impact the play?    Some critics have made the mistake of trying to dismiss Hecate as a fetching song-and-dance girl. In his Introduction to Macbeth, editor Kenneth Muir remarks: "The Hecate passages were clearly invented to introduce the songs and Middleton is usually blamed for these insertions" (xxxiii). But more recent critics like Henri Suhamy take umbrage with both the form and the substance of this argument. Suhamy notes: "the direction printed in italics in the Folio, after line 33 (III,v)--"Musicke, and a Song"--does not mention any identifiable song, contrary to what is indicated by most editors" (274). Stallybrass seems also to believe that Hecate is there to dance, but at least he credits her with a particularly important number: "the dance of Hecate and the six Witches gives a concrete dramatization of the 'deed without a name' (IV.i.49) which reverses the whole order of 'Nature'" (200). What Hecate's interpolation really supplies, however, is order and much more: balance, authority, direct ion, and reason are all part of the substance she provides.    .. ...ologie." In Minor Prose Works. Ed. James Craigie. Edinburgh: Scottish Text Society, 1982. Muir, Kenneth. "Introduction." In Macbeth. Ed. Kenneth Muir. New York: Routledge, 1992. Palmer, D.J. "'A new Gorgon': visual effects in Macbeth." In Focus on Macbeth. Ed. John Russell Brown. Boston: Routledge, 1982. Perkins, William. The Damned Art of Witchcraft. (xeroxed copy) Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Ed. Kenneth Muir. New York: Routledge, 1992. Stallybrass, Peter. "Macbeth and Witchcraft." In Focus on Macbeth. Ed. John Russell Brown. Boston: Routledge, 1982. Suhamy, Henry. "The Authenticity of the Hecate Scenes in Macbeth : Arguments and Counter-Arguments." In French Essays on Shakespeare and His Contemporaries: 'What Would France With Us?" Ed. Jean Marie Maguin and Michele Willems. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995.   

Food reflection Essay

1. Have you ever kept a food journal before? If so, why? I have done a food once when I was in high school. It was my sophomore year in health class. My teacher wanted us to learn about what kind of food we eat. So she made us do it for one weekend. She wanted us to share what we ate and how everyone ate differently. Some people ate healthier and some did not. She made us look at how much we ate and what she should do to eat healthier. 2. Did this food record make you more aware of what you were eating? Did it make you change your eating habits? Why or why not? This food record does make me more aware of what I am eating. Like for that certain day I ate more than the weekdays. On weekdays I would not have time to eat as much as I did because the weekdays I am busy with schoolwork. That day I was with friends during lunch but during dinner I was alone. I don’t think it will make me change my habit on eating. For me, I like to eat different things each day. I do not like to eat the same thing everyday. I like to change things up so I wont get tired of eating the same thing. This is why I feel like I do not need to change my habit because I do change everyday. This also showed me to eat other things. Like it showed that my vegetable and whole grains are low. Which means that I need to eat more things that have them in it than other food. 3. Did your food/drink intake indicate anything about what was going on in your daily life? No I do not feel like it indicates anything about what is going on in my daily life. Like going to the gym to run or walking around the park with friends. Some days when I am lazy, I would sit around and eat food all day long while watching TV. Then other days I would be out with people working and doing activities. I think the only thing the food report shows is the amount of food that is intake but does not show the other activities I do. The food report does not show if I were working at a job. Whether I would be sitting or standing all day. 4. What surprised you about your intake, if anything? One thing that surprised me in the food I ate was the amount of calories that are in some food. I never realized how much could be in one cup or a couple ounces. Usually I do look at the box where it has the calories and the food in it. While looking back at it, it seems as if the calories was not that important, the important thing is to look at the type of food that is in it. Like if there is any grains or meat or vegetable. I looked at the food report and it showed that my vegetables intakes are low. I thought I was fine with the vegetable but I guess I am not. 5. Was your eating pattern for this day usual? Why or why not? This was normal for my weekends. Like I know I can relax and eat as much as I want over the weekend than on the weekdays. On weekdays I am in class and out of class from 8AM to 2PM. If I were not in class I would be at work. So I do not have as much time to eat whatever I want or as much as I want. On a usually weekday, I would get a snack for the morning and then eat at 2 after all my classes are finished. On weekends I would typically eat more. Having a small meal in the morning and two big meals for lunch and dinner. 6. What changes will you make, if any, to your eating patterns after this assignment? Some changes as I said in some of the other questions are to eat more whole grains, eat more vegetables, and take in less refined grains and meat. I need to cut back on some meat because I know if I eat too much I will start to gain weight. While cutting back some of the food, I also need to start to go to the gym more often.

Cellular Basis of Life

What is Life? This perennial question the answer to which has somehow eluded the most brilliant minds. For while scientists have identified many years ago the right mix of the atoms and molecules that constitute cellular material, they have not succeeded in ‘switching it on’ to make it alive, or ‘breathing life’ into it (Rabago et. al,2006) In this module you will: a. Explain the concepts of the cell theory b. Identify the parts of a cell c. Describe the function of each cell part d. Differentiate prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells e. Compare plant and animal cells A. The Cell Theory – tructurally made up of 1. What are living things made of? cells. – 2. What can cells do? 3. Where do cells come from? All living things are The cell is the fundamental unit of life. – Cells come from the division of pre-existing cells. B. Cell Structure and Composition CELL MEMBRANE -Serves as the outer boundary of the cell. It is a selective permeable memb rane which permits the entrance of substances throughout the cell. CYTOPLASM -Serves as the reservoir of the organelles as it contain all the lifesustaining components. It is a jellylike structure. NUCLEUS -Usually located at the center and nown as the control center of the cell. It regulates and coordinates all the activities of the cell. C. Organelles in the Cytoplasm ORGANELLES STRUCTURE Membrane Components Module 8 A. 1. smooth endoplasmic reticulum – usually the site for fat metabolism; forms vesicles for transporting large molecules to other cell parts 2. mitochondria – sites of cellular respiration 3. Golgi apparatus – involved in modifying, sorting and packaging macromolecules for secretion or for delivery to other organelles 4. nuclear membrane – a double membrane which separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm . nucleolus – the site where subunits of ribosomes are formed 6. nuclear pore – serves as pathway for the exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm 7. rough endoplasmic reticulum – studded on its outer surface with ribosomes for the synthesis of protein FUNCTION D. Variations in Cell Structure and Function d. 1 Prokaryotic Cell vs. Eukaryotic Cell A typical Prokaryotic Cell A typical Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells Pro = â€Å"before†, karyon = â€Å"nucleus† Eu = â€Å"true†, karyon = â€Å"nucleus† Prokaryotes are evolutionarily ancient. They were here first and for illions of years were the only form of life. And even with the evolution of more complex eukaryotic cells, prokaryotes are supremely successful. All bacteria and bacterialike Archaea are prokaryotic organisms. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, evolving from a prokaryote-like predecessor. Most of the living things that we are typically familiar with are composed of eukaryotic cells; animals, plants, fungi and protists. Eukaryotic organisms can either be single-celled or multi-celled. PROKAYOTIC EUKARYOTIC Nucleus: Present Number of chromosomes: More than one Cell Type: True Membrane bound Nucleus:Example: Multicellular Absent Oneâ €“but not true chromosome: Plasmids Unicellular Present Absent Animals and Plants Telomeres: Present (Linear DNA) Genetic Recombination: Mitosis and fusion of gametes Lysosomes and peroxisomes: Microtubules: Endoplasmic reticulum: Mitochondria: Cytoskeleton: DNA wrapping on proteins. : Ribosomes: Vesicles: Golgi apparatus: Mitosis: Present Present Present Present Present Yes larger Present Present Yes Chloroplasts: Present (in plants) Bacteria and Archaea Circular DNA doesn't need telemeres Partial, undirectional transfers DNA Absent Absent or rare Absent AbsentMay be absent No smaller Present Absent No—but has binary fission Absent; chlorophyll scattered in the cytoplasm Flagella: Microscopic in size; membrane bound; usually arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets Submicroscopic in size, composed of only one fiber Selective not present Yes Usually no Permeability of Nuclear Membrane: Plasma membrane with steriod: Cell wall: Vacuoles: Cell size: Only in plant c ells (chemically simpler) Present 10-100um Usually chemically complexed Present 1-10um d. 2 Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell Plant Cell Animal Cell Characteristics Plant Cell Cell SizeLarge Cell Shape Rectangular Vacuoles A single centrally located vacuole. It takes up almost 90% of the cell volume. The vacuole stores water and maintains turgidity of the cell. Cell Wall Chloroplasts Cell Division A rigid cell wall (made of cellulose) is present around a plant cell that helps it maintain its shape. Present. Chlorophyll is the pigment that traps sun's energy which is utilized by plants to make food through the process of photosynthesis. This pigment is present in the chloroplasts. Cell division takes place by the formation of cell plate in the center of the dividing cell.This becomes the cell wall between the two daughter cells. Centrioles Present only in lower forms. Plants instead have microtubule organizing centers (MTOC) that produce the microtubules. Centrosome Absent. Instead two smal l clear areas called polar caps are present. Absent Lysosomes Golgi Bodies In place of golgi bodies, its sub units known as dictyosomes are present. Animal Cell Smaller than plant cells Circular If any, there are a number of small vacuoles spread throughout the cytoplasm that store water, ions and waste materials. Cell wall is absent. This allows animal cells to adopt different hapes. Absent. As animals lack this pigment, they cannot make their own food. Animal cells divide with the formation of a cleavage furrow. This is formed as the chromosomes move to the ends of the microtubule spindle formed by the centrioles. Present. Centrioles help in division of animal cells by creating microtubule spindles that pull the chromosomes to opposite ends for cell division to occur. Present Present. Lysosomes are vesicles that contain enzymes that destroy dead cell organelles and other cells debis. Complex golgi bodies are present close to the nucleus. E. Articles about CellBBC NEWS-Last Updated : Tuesday, 20 November 2007, 16:42 GMT Stem cells are thought to hold huge potential for treating a wide range of disease and disability. Scientists around the world are working on techniques to Refine stem cell therapy. The latest technique, nuclear reprogramming, promises to solve some of the trickiest practical and ethical issues. What are stem cells? Most adult cells in the body have a particular purpose which cannot be changed. For instance, a liver cell is developed to perform specific functions, and cannot be transformed to suddenly take on the role of a heart cell.Stem cells are different. They are still at an early stage of development, and retain the potential to turn into many different types of cell. Why are they so useful? When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function. Scientists believe it should be possible to harness this ability to turn stem cells into a super â €Å"repair kit† for the body. Theoretically, it should be possible to use stem cells to generate healthy tissue to replace that either damaged by trauma, or compromised by disease.Among the conditions which scientists believe may eventually be treated by stem cell therapy are Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, stroke, arthritis, diabetes, burns and spinal cord damage. Stem cells may also provide a useful way to test the effects of experimental drugs. It is also hoped that studying stem cells will provide vital clues about how the tissues of the body develop, and how disease takes hold. Are there different types of stem cell? Yes. Scientists believe the most useful stem cells come from the tissue of embryos.This is because they are pluripotent – they have the ability to become virtually any type of cell within the body. Stem cells are also found within adult organs. They have not taken on a fina l role, and have the potential to become any of the m ajor specialized cell types within that organ. Their role is to maintain the organ in a healthy state by repairing any damage it suffers. It is thought their potential to become other types of cell is mo re limited than that of embryonic stem cells. But there is evidence that they are still relatively â€Å"plastic†. Can they be easily grown in the lab?Large numbers of embryonic stem cells can be relatively easily grown in culture. However, adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues and science is still working on ways to grow them in the lab in sufficient numbers. This is an important distinction, as large numbers of cells are needed for stem cell replacement therapies. Is the use of stem cells controversial? Very. Campaigners are vehemently opposed to the use of embryonic stem cells. These cells are typically taken from lab-created embryos that are just four or five days old, and are little more than a microscopic ball of cells.However, opponents argue that all embryos, wh ether created in the lab or not, have the potential to go on to become a fully-fledged human, and as such it is morally wrong to experiment on them. They strongly advocate the use of stem cells from adult tissue. What is nuclear reprogramming? A new technique, in which cells isolated from skin tissue called fibroblasts are modified by inserting gene-controlling proteins. This chemical cocktail causes the cells to be â€Å"reprogrammed† to take on the plastic quality of embryonic stem cells. Why is the nuclear reprogramming an advance?There are two big potential benefits. The current methods derive stem cells from from existing lab lines, but these cells are foreign to the body, and run the risk of rejection if used to repair or replace damaged or diseased tissue. Nuclear reprogramming can potentially produce a supply of stem cells derived from a patient's own tissue – avoiding the issue of rejection of the cells. Secondly, the technique does not require the creation of , or destruction of an embr yo, and so is not ethically contentious. Are there safety concerns? Yes.Some researchers fear that it is possible that stem cell therapy could unwittingly pass viruses and other disease causing agents to people who receive cell transplants. Some research has also raised the possibility that stem cells may turn cancerous. Work also still needs to be done to refine the new technique. Similar results were achieved by two teams using a different combination of gene-controlling proteins. In both cases the success rate in producing new stem cells was also low. Last Updated: Monday, 8 January 2007, 08:58 GMT ‘New stem cell source' discoveredUS scientists say they have discovered a new source of stem cells that could one day repair damaged human organs. Researchers successfully extracted the cells from the fluid that fills the womb in pregnancy and then grew them in lab experiments. The types of stem cell with potentially the most use have so far been deriv ed from specially grown human embryos. But this has created ethical concerns because the embryos are destroyed in the process. Opponents say this is tantamount to cannibalism. Supporters say stem cells offer real hope in treating illnesses like diabetes, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.Implanted in mice Writing in Nature Biotechnology, the scientists said it should be possible to harness the cells' ability to grow into different tissue to treat disease. â€Å" It shouldn't be seen as a race between embryonic stem cells and other sources † Prof Colin McGuckin Newcastle University However, UK experts had doubts about the feasibility of the technique. They said gathering amniotic fluid from large numbers of women might be difficult. Amniotic fluid contains a large number of cells, many of which come from the developing foetus.The team from Wake Forest University School of Medicine, in North Carolina, extracted these from fluid samples taken as part of unrelated diagnostic tests duri ng pregnancy, then encouraged them to grow in the laboratory. They found that they had the potential to turn into a wide variety of different cells – the hallmark of potentially useful stem cells. They then transplanted them into mice, and carried out further tests to look at how they performed in a living creature. Again, the results were encouraging, with the stem cells spreading and starting to produce key body chemicals in both brain and liver.Bone stem cells introduced onto an artificial ‘scaffold' then implanted into mice also appeared to behave in a similar way to normal bone cells, forming bone even months later. Great interest The conclusion of the researchers was that the amniotic cells were ‘pluripotent' – capable of becoming many different cell types, and that they held the potential for treatment – particularly on the child from whose mother they were taken, for whom they are an exact tissue match. Dr Paolo De Coppi, now of Great Ormond Street Hospital, who worked on the study, said the amniotic stem cells were similar to, but not identical to, embryonic stem cells.He said: â€Å"Our research suggests that for some clinical applications they may work better than embryonic stem cells. â€Å"For example, embryonic stem cells injected into muscle can form teratomas – amniotic stem cells do not do this. â€Å"However, the range of applications for these stem cells may be more narrow than for embryonic stem cells. † Dr De Coppi it might be possible to take amniotic stem cells from a child diagnosed before birth with a problem, and use them to grow new tissue in the laboratory, which would be ready to use to treat the child when it was born.In theory, it might also be possible to genetically modify a foetus' own stem cells and inject them back into the amnioitc fluid to correct gene disorders. Possible limitations Professor Colin McGuckin, from Newcastle University, is researching the use of similar cells taken from the umbilical cord at birth. He welcomed the report, saying that it was ‘thorough' and demonstrated the potential of amniotic stem cells. â€Å"The best thing is to have a variety of stem cell sources to provide the best stem cell for patients. Unless researchers do work to demonstrate there are alternatives to embryonic stem cells, the wider public won't understand that. It shouldn't be seen as a race between embryonic stem cells and other sources. † However, he said that harvesting amniotic fluid presented particular difficulties in many cases. â€Å"If it is a natural birth, the waters break and they are all over the floor, and you've lost them. In this country, the majority of women give birth naturally, which means that fluid could not be collected. â€Å"You could conceivably gather amniotic fluid during a caesarean section, but that process could interfere with the experience of giving birth. † Wednesday, 15 November 2006, 18:00 GMT Stem cells ‘treat muscle disease'A stem cell breakthrough could lead to a treatment For muscular dystrophy (MD), research has revealed. An Italian-French team found transplanting stem cells into dogs with a version of the disease markedly improved their symptoms. Writing in the journal Nature, the team said the work paved the way for future trials in humans. Scientists said it was a major step forward and bolstered the idea that stem cells could be used to treat MD. â€Å" This is the first piece of research that has convinced me that stem cell therapy could play a role in treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy † Professor Dominic WellsMuscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that cause the muscles in the body to gradually weaken over time and mobility to be lost. It shortens life span and there is currently no cure. The researchers, led by a team at San Raffaele Scientific Institute, in Milan, Italy, looked at the most common form of the disease, Duchenne muscular d ystrophy. This condition, which usually only affects boys, appears in about one in every 3,500 male births and is caused by mutations in a particular gene that lead to a lack of dystrophin, a protein involved in maintaining the integrity of muscle.The team had previously seen promising results when they injected stem cells into mice with a version of this disease, but turned to dogs for their next trial because they replicate the musclewasting disease more accurately. Mobility returned The researchers used a form of stem cells, gathered from blood vessels, called mesoangioblasts, which are â€Å"programmed† to turn into muscle cells. They isolated the stem cells from both healthy dogs and also from MD dogs, with the latter's stem cells then being modified to â€Å"correct† the mutated gene. The scientists proceeded to inject these different types of stem cells into dogs with MD.They found that transferring the stem cells five times at monthly intervals produced the bes t results. Overall, injections of stem cells taken from healthy dogs showed the most improvement. Four out of the six dogs who received these stem cells saw the return of dystrophin and regained muscle strength. One dog that was injected at an early-stage of the disease retained the ability to walk, and two dogs injected at a late-stage of the disease had their mobility returned. Of the remaining two, one died early and the other, the scientists believe, did not receive enough cells.The experiment to inject MD dogs with their own â€Å"corrected† stem cells proved less successful, although the dytrophin protein returned. This approach was investigated because, should stem cell treatment move into humans, it would mean patients could be injected with their own cells, minimising the chances of rejection and avoiding the need to take immunosuppressant drugs. The researchers wrote: â€Å"The work reported here sets the logical premise for the start of clinical experimentation th at may lead to an efficacious therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. ‘Excellent work' Dr Marita Pohlschmidt, director of research at the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign, UK, said: â€Å"We feel encouraged by the work because the results provide initial evidence that we might be one step closer to a stem cell treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. † Dr Stephen Minger, a stem cell researcher at Kings College London, said: â€Å"This is an excellent piece of work demonstrating significant functional improvement in a naturally occurring disease in dogs that is very similar to that in humans. Although it will likely to be some time before this work can move to humans, it is nevertheless an important study in developing therapies for muscular dystrophies. † Professor Dominic Wells, of the gene targeting group at Imperial College, London, said: â€Å"This is yet another example of the vital contribution animal research makes to the development of treatments for human disease. â€Å"This is the first piece of research that has convinced me that stem cell therapy could play a role in treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. â€Å"Kay Davies of the MRC Functional Genetics Unit, University of Oxford, said: â€Å"The use of stem cells to treat human disease holds great promise, but the actual delivery of such therapy is thought to be many years away. † The data, she said, changed this view. However, she added that the researchers needed to find out why not all dogs responded positively. Wednesday, 8 November 2006, 16:48 GMT Cell transplants ‘restore sight' Cell transplants have successfully restored vision to mice which had lost their sight, leading to hopes people could enefit in the same way. UK scientists treated animals which had eye damage similar to that seen in many human eye diseases. They were able to help them see again by transplanting immature retinal stem cells into their eyes. UK experts welcomed the study, published i n the magazine Nature, saying it was â€Å"stunning† research. â€Å" This is a stunning piece of research that may in the distant future may lead to transplants in humans to relieve blindness † Professor Andrew Dick University of BristolIf the results can be translated into a treatment for human eye disease, it could help the millions of people with conditions ranging from age-related macular degeneration to diabetes. Once the cone and rod photoreceptors in a retina are lost, they cannot be replaced. While treatments are being developed which might prevent or delay the loss of these cells, scientists are also seeking to help those already affected. It is thought the retina is one of the best places to try out cell transplant therapy because photoreceptor loss initially leaves the rest of the wiring to the brain intact.But previous attempts to transplant stem cells, which can turn into any kind of cell in the body, in the hope that they will become photoreceptors have failed because the cells were not developed enough. Harvest In this study, funded by the Medical Research Council, scientists from the University College London Institutes of Ophthalmology and Child Health and Moorfields Eye Hospital transplanted cells which were more advanced, and already programmed to develop into photoreceptors. ? 1 – Early stage retinal cells are taken from a newborn mouse ? 2 – They are transplanted into the retina of a mouse which has lost its sight ? – The cells implant and connect with existing cells in the eye, restoring some sight to the mouse. The team took cells from three to five-day-old mice, a stage when the retina is about to be formed. The cells were then transplanted into animals which had been genetically designed to have conditions which meant they would gradually lose their sight – either mimicking the human disease retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration. The transplants were successful; the photorec eptors implanted and made electrical connections to the animals' existing retinal nerve cells – key to allowing them to see again.Tests showed that the mice's pupils responded to light and that there was activity in the optical nerve, showing signals were being sent to the brain. Dr Jane Sowden, one of the study's leaders, said: â€Å"Remarkably, we found that the mature retina, previously believed to have no capacity for repair, is in fact able to support the development of n ew functional photoreceptors. † ‘Not false hope' To get human retinal cells at the same stage of development, however, would involve taking stem cells from a foetus during the second trimester of pregnancy.But Dr Robert MacLaren, a specialist at Moorfields Eye Hospital who worked on the research, said they did not want to go down that route. He said the aim now would be to look at adult stem cells to see if they could be genetically altered to behave like the mouse retinal cells. There are some cells on the margin of adult retinas that have been identified as having stem cell -like properties, which the team says could be suitable. Dr MacLaren stressed it would be some time before patients could benefit from such a treatment, but he said that at least it was now a possibility. Every day, I sit in my clinic and have to tell patients that there's nothing I can do. â€Å"I don't want to give patients false hope. But at least now, if I see a young patient, I can say that there might be something within your lifetime. † Dr Stephen Minger, a stem cell expert at King's College London, said: â€Å"I think this is important, superb research – it clearly shows that the host environment is important in directing the integration of transplanted cells. † But Andrew Dick, professor of ophthalmology at the University of Bristol, added: â€Å"As with any basic research we have to be careful not to overhype.Remove the Jello from the plastic cup onto the paper pla te. We had some problem with this. The students may need to run the knife around the very outside edge of the Jello to loosen it. There are some suggestions that you might spray the cup with Pam or some other non -stick material. We did not get a chance to try this yet. Running warm water over the cup may also loosen the Jello. 3. Cut the Jello/Knox in half and remove the top half. Turn over the top and set it on the plate beside the bottom half 4. Use the spoon to dig out a hole in the bottom half of the Jello/Knox cytoplasm . Just pushing the food pieces into the Jello causes it to crack and come apart, making for a very messy cell.Place the gumball in this hole to represent the nucleus of the cell. 5. Using the spoon to make spaces and your diagram as a guide, place the other cell parts into the cell. Parts can be put into both the top and bottom half of the Jello/Knox cell 6. Take the top part of the cell and carefully place it on the top. If the cell feels soft, you can put the parts back into the plastic cup, then turn it over onto the paper plate. Then carefully remove the plastic cup. 7. After reviewing the parts one final time, those students who wish to can feast on their cell. Please use clean spoons in case the spoon you were working with fell on the floor or the table. It's Alive, Alive.Background: You will be in groups of three, each with your own job. The jobs to choose from are Contractor, Architect, and Surveyor. Your job, as a group, is to build the most realistic life-like plant cell the world has ever seen. Problem: What does a 3-dimensional cell look like? What are the various parts of plant cells? Materials: Play-doe, food coloring or tempera paints (red, purple, green, blue, white), 1 pair of gloves, yarn or undercooked spaghetti, pepper, plastic-bubble packing, aluminum foil, plastic wrap, pencil shavings, scissors, 1 large knife, glue. Procedure: 1.Before we start be aware that on the final day you must present your cell to the class. 2. After you have decided upon your jobs, the Contractor and Architect will collaborate to design the plant cell. The design should be drawn up on a piece of paper that explains what materials will be used for each organelle. It should be colored the same color it will appear when it is built. Take your time and make a good drawing. This should be completed early on day two. Throughout this entire process the Surveyor should be writing down the order in which each organelle was designed and the order in which it will be built. Along with this the Surveyor must make a copy of the design that the group can use when building it.The Surveyor's job is to basically take notes all the way through, so if the final product doesn't come out as planned the Surveyor can look back at their notes and answer why. 3. After you have finished your design, hand it in and your teacher will approve it. If it is approved, you can start to build your cell. 4. Building should be the role of the contractor. Architect's watch the bui lders to make sure they are doing it exactly as planned. Surveyors should take notes on how it is built and also can assist the Architects to make sure it is being built as planned. It's Just a Phase They're Going Through! Problem: What phases do cells undergo during mitosis? What happens at each phase?Materials: Unlined paper (1 sheet), colored pencils, pencil, crayons, light microscope, slides, cover slips, onion (fresh), toothpicks, knife (used by teacher only), iodine stain. Procedure: Procedure Part A: Slide Preparation Onion Skin a. First take a piece of onion skin off the onion. b. Put it flat on a slide. c. Bring the slide to the leader for a drop of iodine stain. Data Sheet d. Carefully put on a cover slip remembering to angle it. e. Examine the cell under low then medium power. 1. Front f. Adjust your microscope to a higher power. 2. Procedure Part B: Data Preparation 3. Back 1. You will take your paper fold and it in half, label each ox created (front + back) numbers 1 – 4 as shown on the right. 4. 2. Create a large box within numbered box, as shown. 3. Within the large area you will draw the stages of mitosis, make them colorful. 4. Within the smaller box you will write the name of each stage shown, and give a full description of what you see happening.Cells Vocabulary Quiz Directions: Match the vocabulary words on the left with the definitions on the right. 1. tissue the central, essential, or highly concentrated part around which other parts are grouped. 2. vacuole a musical instrument consisting of a keyboard attached to a device that forces air through a number of pipes to produce a wide range of sounds; pipe organ. 3. chromosome storage areas of the cell known for storing mostly water and/or food. 4. chlorophyll (chlorophyl) the ground protoplasm of cells that is outside the nucleus. 5. cell membrane Shaped like a bean, this cell organelle helps take food and manuf acture energy from it. 6. chloroplastA struct ure inside the nucleus where RNA is transcribed. 7. cell wall the mass of like cells in an animal or plant body, esp. as they form a specific organ: 8. nucleolus Thin, intertwined pieces of DNA found in the cell's nucleus. 9. organ the green (in color) pigment found in chloroplasts where photosynthesis takes place. 10. cytoplasm Mostly made of cellulose, this is the tough and rigid outer layer of plant cells. 11. nucleus an egg shaped body that appears green from all the chlorophyll they contain. This organelle is where photosynthesis takes place. 12. mitochondrion The enclosure of the cell that provides the body for all the organelles.Cells Word Chop Worksheet Directions: The table below contains words that have been chopped in half. Find the pieces that fit together and write them in the answer area below. osome vac sues chrom tis cell chlor org leus embrane ophyll eolus ans ondria cell m oplast nucl nuc chlor plasm cyto mitoch uole wall.